Les primeres referències xineses sobre el món rómà

SIMA QIAN: SHI JI 123: THE ACCOUNT OF DAYUAN
(WATSON, Burton (1993).Records of the Grand Historian. Hong Kong. Columbia University Press. Vol. II., pp.: 231-246)

After the Han had sent its envoy to open up communications with the state of Daxia (Bactria), all the barbarians of the distant west craned their necks to the east and longed to catch a glimpse of China. Thus I made "The Account of Dayuan".

Zhang Qian was the first person to bring back a clear account of Dayuan (Ferghana). He was a native of Hanzhong and served as a palace attendant during the jianyuan era (140-135 BC). At this time the emperor questioned various Xiongnu who had surrendered to the Han and they all reported that the Xiongnu had defeated the king of the Yuezhi people (Indo-scythians) and made his skull into a drinking vessel. As a result the Yuezhi had fled and bore a constant grudge against the Xiongnu, though as yet they had been unable to find anyone to join them in an attack on their enemy.

The Han at this time was engaged in a concerted effort to destroy the Xiongnu, and therefore, when the emperor heard this, he decided to try to send an envoy to establish relations with the Yuezhi. To reach them, however, an envoy would inevitably have to pass through Xiongnu territory. (...) Zhang Qian, who was a palace attendant at the time, answered the summons and was appointed as envoy to the Yuezhi.

He set out from Longxi, accompanied by Ganfu, a Xiongnu slave who belonged to a family in Tangyi. They travelled west through the territory of the Xiongnu and were captured by the Xiongnu and taken before the Shanyu. The Shanyu detained them and refused to let them proceed. "The Yuezhi people live north of me," he said. "What does the Han mean by trying to send an envoy to them! Do you suppose that if I tried to send an embassy to the kingdom of Yue in the southeast the Han would let my men pass through China?"

The Xiongnu detained Zhang Qian for over ten years and gave him a wife from their own people, by whom he had a son. Zhang Qian never once relinquished the imperial credentials that marked him as an envoy of the Han, however, and after he had lived in Xiongnu territory for some time and was less closely watched than at first, he and his party finally managed to escape and resume their journey toward the Yuezhi.

After hastening west for twenty or thirty days, they reached the kingdom of Dayuan (Ferghana). The king of Dayuan had heard of the wealth of the Han empire and wished to establish communication with it, though as yet he had been unable to do so. When he met Zhang Qian he was overjoyed and asked where Zhang Qian wished to go.

"I was dispatched as envoy of the Han to the Yuezhi, but the Xiongnu blocked my way and I have only just now managed to escape," he replied. "I beg Your Highness to give me some guides to show me the way. If I can reach my destination and return to the Han to make my report, the Han will reward you with countless gifts!"

The king of Dayuan trusted his words and sent him on his way, giving him guides and interpreters to take him (...) to the land of the Great Yuezhi.

Since the king of the Great Yuezhi had been killed by the Xiongnu, his son had succeeded him as ruler and had forced the kingdom of Daxia (Bactria) to recognize his sovereignty. The region he ruled was rich and fertile and seldom troubled by invaders, and the king thought only of his own enjoyment. He considered the Han too far away to bother with and had no particular intention of avenging his father's death by attacking the Xiongnu. (...)

After spending a year or so in the area, he began to journey back along the Nanshan or Southern Mountains, intending to re-enter China through the territory of the Qiang barbarians, but he was once more captured by the Xiongnu and detained tor over a year.

Just at this time the Shanyu died (...)and a result of this the whole Xiongnu nation was in turmoil and Zhang Qian, along with his Xiongnu wife and the former slave Gan fu, was able to escape and return to China. The emperor honoured Zhang Qian with the post of palace counsellor and awarded Ganfu the title of "Lord Who Carries Out His Mission". (...) When Zhang Qian first set out on his mission, he was accompanied by over 100 men, but after thirteen years abroad, only he and Ganfu managed to make their way back to China.

Zhang Qian in person visited the lands of Dayuan, the Great Yuezhi, and Daxia, and in addition he gathered reports on five or six other large states in the neighbourhood. All of his intormation he related to the emperor on his return. The substance of his report was as follows:

Thus the emperor learned of Dayuan, Daxia, Anxi and the others, all great states rich in unusual products whose people cultivated the land and made their living in much the same way as the Chinese. (...) If it were only possible to win over these states by peaceful means, the emperor thought, he could then extend his domain 10,000 li, attract to his court men of strange customs who would come translating and retranslating their languages, and his might would become known to all the lands within the four seas.

The emperor was therefore delighted, and approved Zhang Qian's suggestion. He ordered Zhang Qian to start out from Shu on a secret mission to search for Daxia. The party broke up into four groups . (...) None of the parties were ever able to get through to their destination. They did learn, however, that some 1.000 or more li to the west there was a state called Dianyue whose people rode elephants and that the merchants from Shu sometimes went there with their goods on unofficial trading missions. In this way the Han, while searching for a route to Daxia, first came into contact with the kingdom of Dian.

Earlier the Han had tried to establish relations with the barbarians of the southwest, but the expense proved too great and no road could be found through the region and so the project was abandoned. After Zhang Qian reported that it was possible to reach Daxia by travelling through the region of the southwestern barbarians, the Han once more began efforts to establish relations with the tribes in the area.

During this time the emperor occasionally questioned Zhang Qian about Daxia and the other states of the west. Zhang Qian (...) replied, "When I was living among the Xiongnu I heard about (...) the Wusun people. The barbarians are well known to be greedy for Han wealth and goods. If we could make use of this opportunity to send rich gifts and bribes to the Wusun people, (...) then the Han could conclude an alliance of brotherhood with them (...). Then, once we had established an alliance with the Wusun, Daxia and the other countries to the west could all be persuaded to come to court and acknowledge themselves our foreign vassals."

The emperor approved of this suggestion and, appointing Zhang Qian as a general of palace attendants, put him in charge of a party of 300 men, each of whom was provided with two horses. In addition the party took along tens of thousands of cattle and sheep and carried gold and silk goods worth 100,000,000 cash. Many of the men in the party were given the imperial credentials making them assistant envoys so that they could be sent to neighbouring states along the way.

When Zhang Qian reached the kingdom of the Wusun, the king of the Wusun tried to treat the Han envoys in the same way that the Xiongnu treated them. Zhang Qian was greatly outraged and, knowing that the barbarians were greedy, said, "The Son of Heaven has sent me with these gifts, but if you do not prostrate yourself to receive them, I shall have to take them back!"

With this the king of the Wusun jumped up from his seat and prostrated himself to receive the gifts. The other details of the envoys' reception Zhang Qian allowed to remain as before.

But the Wusun people were split into several groups and the king was old. Living far away from China, he had no idea how large the Han empire was and Zhang Qian was therefore unable to persuade him to listen to his proposal. (...)

Zhang Qian dispatched his assistant envoys to Dayuan, the Great Yuezhi, Daxia, Anxi, Shendu, and the other neighbouring states, the Wusun providing them with guides and interpreters. Then he returned to China, accompanied by twenty or thirty envoys from the Wusun and a similar number of horses which the Wusun sent in exchange for the Han gifts. The Wusun envoys thus had an opportunity to see with their own eyes the breadth and greatness of the Han empire.

On his return Zhang Qian was honoured with the post of grand messenger, ranking him among the nine highest ministers of the government. A year or so later he died.

The Wusun envoys, having seen how rich and populous the Han was, returned and reported what they had learned to their own people, and after this the Wusun regarded the Han with greater respect. A year or so later the envoys whom Zhang Qian had sent to Daxia and the other states of the west all returned, accompanied by envoys from those states, and for the first time relations were established between the lands of the northwest and the Han. It was Zhang Qian, however, who opened the way for this move, and all the envoys who journeyed to the lands in later times relied upon his reputation to gain them a hearing. As a result of his efforts, the foreign states trusted the Han envoys. (...)

At this time the Han first built fortifications west of the district of Lingju and established the province of Jiuquan in order to provide a safe route to the lands of the northwest, and as a result more and more envoys were sent to Anxi, Tiaozhi, and Shendu. The emperor was very fond of the Dayuan horses and sent a constant stream of envoys to that region to acquire them.

The largest of these embassies to foreign states numbered several hundred persons, while even the smaller parties included over 100 members, though later, as the envoys became more accustomed to the route, the number was gradually reduced. The credentials and gifts which the envoys bore with them were much like those supplied to the envoys in Zhang Qian's time. In the course of one year anywhere from five or six to over ten parties would be sent out. Those travelling to distant lands required eight or nine years to complete their journey, while those visiting nearer regions would return after a few years. (...) By this time, however, so many envoys had journeyed to Daxia by the northern route out of Jiuquan that the foreign states in the area had become surfeited with Han goods and no longer regarded them with any esteem. (...) The envoys were all sons of poor families who handled the government gifts and goods that were entrusted to them as though they were private property and looked for opportunities to buy goods at a cheap price in the foreign countries and make a profit on their return to China. The men of the foreign lands soon became disgusted when they found that each of the Han envoys told some ditterent story and, considering that the Han armies were too far away to worry about, refused to supply the envoys with food and provisions, making things very difficult for them. The Han envoys were soon reduced to a state of destitution and distress and, their tempers mounting, fell to quarrelling and even attacking each other.

When the Han envoys first visited the kingdom of Anxi, the king of Anxi dispatched a party of 20,000 horsemen to meet them on the eastern border of his kingdom. The capital of the kingdom is several thousand li from the eastern border, and as the envoys proceeded there they passed through twenty or thirty cities inhabited by great numbers of people. When the Han envoys set out again to return to China, the king of Anxi dispatched envoys of his own to accompany them, and after the latter had visited China and reported on its great breadth and might, the king sent some of the eggs of the great birds which live in the region, and skilled tricksters of Lixuan, to the Han court as gifts. In addition, the smaller states west of Dayuan, such Huanqian and Dayi, as well as those east of Dayuan, such as Gushi, Yumi, and Suxie, all sent parties to accompany the Han envoys back to China and present gifts at court. The emperor was delighted at this. (...)

At this time the emperor made frequent tours east to the seacoast, and at such times he would take all the visitors from foreign lands along in his party, passing through large and populous cities on the way, scattering gifts of money and silk among the visitors, and supplying them with generous accommodation in order to impress upon them the wealth of the Han empire. He would hold great wrestling matches and displays of unusual skills and all sorts of rare creatures, gathering together large numbers of people to watch. He entertained the foreign visitors with veritable lakes of wine and forests of meat and had them shown around to the various granaries and storehouses to see how much wealth was laid away there, astounding and overwhelming them with the breadth and greatness of the Han empire. After the skills of the foreign magicians and tricksters had been imported into China, the wrestling matches and displays of unusual feats developed and improved with each year, and from this time on entertainments of this type became increasingly popular.

In this way party after party of envoys from the foreign lands of the northwest would arrive in China and, after a while, take their leave. Those from the states west of Dayuan, however, believing that their homelands were too far away from China to be in any danger, continued to conduct themselves with great arrogance and selfassurance; it was impossible to make them conform to proper ritual or to compel them to obey the wishes of the Han court.

The lands from that of the Wusun on west to Anxi were situated nearer to the Xiongnu than to China, and it was well known that the Xiongnu had earlier caused the Yuezhi people great suffering. Therefore, whenever a Xiongnu envoy appeared in the region carrying credentials from the Shanyu, he was escorted from state to state and provided with food, and no one dared to detain him or cause him any difficulty. In the case of the Han envoys, however, if they did not hand out silks or other goods they were given no food, and unless they purchased animals in the markets they could get no mounts for their riders. This was because the people considered the Han too far away to bother about. They also believed that the Han had plenty of goods and money and it was therefore proper to make the envoys pay for whatever they wanted. As may be seen, they were much more afraid of the Xiongnu envoys than of those from the Han.

The regions around Dayuan make wine out of grapes, the wealthier inhabitants keeping as much as 10,000 or more piculs stored away. It can be kept for as long as twenty or thirty years without spoiling. The people love their wine and the horses love their alfalfa. The Han envoys brought back grape and alfalfa seeds to China and the emperor for the first time tried growing these plants in areas of rich soil. Later, when the Han acquired large numbers of the "heavenly horses" and the envoys from foreign states began to arrive with their retinues, the lands on all sides of the emperor's summer palaces and pleasure towers were planted with grapes and alfalfa for as far as the eye could see.

Although the states from Dayuan west to Anxi speak rather different languages, their customs are generally similar and their languages mutually intelligible. The men all have deep-set eyes and profuse beards and whiskers. They are skilful at commerce and will haggle over a fraction of a cent. Women are held in great respect, and the men make decisions on the advice of their women. No silk or lacquer is produced anywhere in the region, and the casting of coins and vessels was formerly unknown. Later, however, when some of the Chinese soldiers attached to the Han embassies ran away and surrendered to the people of the area, they taught them how to cast metal and manufacture weapons. Now, whenever the people of the region lay their hands on any Han gold or silver they immediately make it in to vessels and do not use it for currency. (...)

The emperor had already taken a great liking to the horses of Dayuan and (...) he dispatched a party (...) to go to the king of Dayuan and ask him for some of the fine horses. (...) Dayuan by this time was overflowing with Han goods (...) and at the end they refused to give the Han envoys any horses (...) and they attacked and killed the envoys and seized their goods.

When the emperor recieved word of the fate of the envoys he was in a rage (...) and he dispatched general Li Guang with a force of 6.000 horsemen recruited from the dependant states, as well as 20 or 30.000 young men of bad reputation rounded up from the provinces and kingdoms, to launch an attack on Dayuan.
 

HOU HAN SHU , cap. 88: Les Regions Occidentals. (Da Qin: I’imperi romà oriental). (El Hou Han Shu, Llibre dels Han Posteriors, cobreix el periode de +25-+220)
(HIRTH, F. (1885).China and the Roman Orient, Shanghai, Ares Publishers, pp.: 39-43)

In the 9th year of the era yongyuan of Hedi [+ 97] the general Ban Chao sent Ganying as an ambassador to Da Qin, who arrived in Tiaozhi (Babilonia) on the coast of the great sea. When about to take his passage across the sea, the sailors of the western frontier of Anxi [Partia] told Ganying: "The sea is vast and great; with favourable winds it is possible to cross within three months; but if you meet slow winds, it may also take you two years. It is for this reason that those who go to sea take on board a supply of three years’ provisions. There is something in the sea which is apt to make man home-sick, and several have thus lost their lives." From the extreme west frontier of Anxi you travel south by sea, and so reach Da Qin.

The country of Da Qin [Siria romana] is situated on the western part of the sea. Its territory amounts to several thousand li; it contains over four hundred cities and of dependent states there are several times ten. The defences of cities are made of stone. The postal stations and mile-stones on the roads are covered with plaster. There are pine and cypress trees and all kinds of other trees and plants.

The people are much bent on agriculture, and practice the planting of trees and the rearing of silk-worms. They cut the hair of their heads, wear embroidered clothing, and drive in small carriages covered with white canopies; when going in or out they beat drums, and hoist flags, banners, and pennants.

The precincts of the walled city in which they live measure over a hundred Iiin circumference. In the city there are five palaces, ten Iidistant from each other. In the palace buildings they use crystal to make pillars; vessels used in taking meals are also so made. The king goes to one palace a day to hear cases. After five days he has completed his round. As a rule, they let a man with a bag follow the king’s carriage. Those who have some matter to submit, throw a petition into the bag. When the king arrives at the palace, he examines into the rights and wrongs of the matter. The official documents are under the control of thirty-six generals who conjointly discuss government affairs.

Their kings are not permanent rulers, but they appoint men of merit. When a severe calamity visits the country, or untimely rain-storms, the king is deposed and replaced by another. The one relieved from his duties submits to his degradation without a murmur.

The inhabitants of that country are tall and well-proportioned, somewhat like the Chinese, whence they are called Da Qin. The country contains much gold, silver, and rare precious stones, especially the jewel that shines at night, the moonshine pearl, corals, amber, glass, green jadestone, gold-embroidered rugs and thin silk-cloth of various colours. They make gold-coloured cloth and asbestos cloth. They further have fine cloth, it is made from the cocoons of wild silk-worms. They collect all kinds of fragrant substances, the juice of which they boil into storax. All the rare gems of other foreign countries come from there. They make coins of gold and silver. Ten units of silver are worth one of gold. They traffic by sea with Anxi [Partial and Tianzhu [India], the profit of which trade is ten-fold. They are honest in their transactions, and there are no double prices. Cereals are always cheap. The budget is based on a wellfilled treasury.

When the embassies of neighbouring countries come to their frontier, they are driven by post to the capital, and, on arrival, are presented with golden money. Their kings always desired to send embassies to China, but the Anxi [Parts] wished to carry on trade with them in Chinese silks, and it is for this reason that they were cut off from communication. This lasted till the ninth year of the yanxi period during the emperor Huandi’s reign [+166] when the king of Da Qin, Andun, sent an embassy who, from the frontier of Rinan [Annam] offered ivory, rhinoceros horns, and tortoise shell. From that time dates the direct intercourse with this country. The list of their tribute contained no jewels whatever, which fact throws doubt on the tradition. It is said by some that in the west of this country there is the (...) place where the sun sets. Former embassies from China all returned back; there were none who came as far as Da Qin.

The country is densely populated; every ten Ii of a road are marked by a landmark; every thirty Ii by a resting-place. One is not alarmed by robbers, but the road becomes unsafe by fierce tigers and lions who will attack passengers, and unless these be travelling in caravans of a hundred men or more, or be protected by military equipment, they may be devoured by those beasts. They also say there is a flying bridge of several hundred Ii, by which one may cross to the countries north of the sea. The articles made of rare precious stones produced in this country are sham curiosities and mostly not genuine, whence they are not here mentioned.
 

JIN SHU: cap. 91 (El Jin Shu, Llibre dels Jin, cobreix el període 275-419)
(HIRTH, F. (1885).China and the Roman Orient. Shanghai, Ares Publishers, pp.: 43-45)

Da Qin is in the western part of the western sea. (...) The inhabitants use coral in making the kingposts of their dwellings; they use opaque glass in making wails, and crystal in making the pedestals of pillars. (...) They have keepers of official records and foreigners (interpreters) who are acquainted with their style of writing. (...) The inhabitants are tall, and their faces resemble those of the Chinese, but they wear foreign dress. (...)The water of the great sea which is crossed on the road thither is salt and bitter, and unfit for drinking purposes; the merchants travelling to and fro are provided with three years’ provisions; hence, there are not many going. (...) During the Taikang period of the emperor Wudi [+280-290] their king sent an envoy to offer tribute.
 
 

LIANG SHU: cap 54 (El Liang Shu, Llibre dels Liang, una de les Sis dinasties del sud del Període de les Dinasties del Nord i del Sud, cobreix el període 502-556)
(HIRTH, F. (1885).China and the Roman Orient Shanghai, Ares Publishers, pp.: 46- 48)

In the 9th year of the yanxi period of emperor Huandi of the Han dynasty [+166] the King of Da Qin, Andun, sent an embassy with tribute from the frontier of Rinan [Annami; during the Han period they have only once communicated (with China]. The merchants of this country frequently visit Punan [Cambodia], Rinan [Annam] and Jiaozhi [Tonkin]; but few of the inhabitants of these southern frontier states have come to Da Qin.

During the 5th year of the huangwu period of the reign of Sunquan [+226] a merchant of Da Qin, whose name was Qin Lun, came to Jiaozhi [Tonkin]; the prefect of Jiaozhi, Wu Miao, sent him to Sunquan (the Wu emperorl, who asked him for a report on his native country and its people. Qin Lun prepared a statement, and replied. At the time Zhuge Ke chastised Jiangnan and they had caught blackish coloured dwarfs. When Qin Lun saw them he said that in Da Qin these men are rarely seen. Sunquan then sent male and female dwarfs, ten of each, in charge of an officer to accompany Qin Lun. The officer died on the road, whereupon Qin Lun returned direct to his native country.
 

JIU TANG SHU (El Jiu Tang Shu Llibre de la vella dinastia Tang), escrit a mitjans segle X, cobreix el periode de 618 a 906), cap. 198

The country of Fulin, also called Da Qin, lies above the western sea. In the southeast it borders on Bo Si [Persia]. Its territory amounts to over 10,000 li. Of cities there are four hundred. Inhabited places are close together. The eaves, pillars, and window-bars of their palaces are frequently made with crystal and opaque glass.

There are twelve honourable ministers who conjointly regulate government matters. They ordinarily let a man take a bag and follow the king’s carriage. When the people have a complaint they throw a written statement into the bag. When the king comes back to the palace he decides between right and wrong. Their kings are not permanent rulers, but they select men of merit. If an extraordinary calamity visits the country, or if wind and rain come at the wrong time, he is deposed and another man is put in his stead. The king’s cap is shaped like a bird raising its wings; its trimmings are beset with precious pearls; he wears silk embroidered clothing, without a lapel in front. He sits on a throne with golden ornaments. He has a bird like a goose; its feathers are green, and it always sits on a cushion by the side of the king. Whenever anything poisonous has been put into the king’s meals, the bird will crow.

The wails of their capital are built of stone [granite, not brick] and are of enormous height. The city contains in all over 100.000 households. In the south it faces the great sea. In the east of the city there is a large gate; its height is over twenty chang (=over 235 feet]; it is beset with yellow gold from top to bottom, and shines at a distance of several li Coming from outside to the royal residence there are three large gates beset with all kinds of rare and precious stones. On the upper floor of the second gate they have suspended a large golden scale, twelve golden balls are suspended from the scale-stick by which the twelve hours of the day are shown. A human figure has been made all of gold of the size of a man standing upright, on whose side, whenever an hour has come, one of the golden balls will drop, the dingiing sound of which makes known the divisions of the day without the slightest mistake. In the palaces, pillars are made of se-se ,the floors of yellow gold, the leaves of folding doors of ivory, beams of fragrant wood. They have no tiles, but powdered plaster is rammed down into a floor above the house. This floor is perfectly firm and of glossy appearance like jadestone. When, during the height of summer, the inhabitants are oppressed by heat, they lead water up and make it flow over the platform, spreading it all over the roof by a secret contrivance so that one sees and knows not how it is done, but simply hears the noise of a well on the roof; suddenly you see streams of water rushing down from the four eaves like a cataract; the draught caused thereby produces a cooling wind, which is due to this skilful contrivance.

It is customary for men to have their hair cut and wear robes leaving the right arm bare. Women have no lapels on their dresses, they wear turbans of embroidered cloth. The possession of a great fortune confers superior rank on its owner. There are lambs which grow in the ground; the inhabitants wait till they are about to sprout, and then screen them off by building walls to prevent the beasts which are at large outside from eating them up. The navel of these lambs is connected with the ground; when it is forcibly cut the animal will die, but after the people have fixed the buds themselves, they frighten them by the steps of horses or the beating of drums, when the lambs will yield a sound of alarm, and the navel will be detached, and then the animal may be taken off [separated from 7] the water-plant.

The inhabitants are in the habit of cutting their hair and wearing embroidered clothing; they drive in small carriages with white canopies; when going in or out they beat drums and hoist flags, banners, and pennants.

The country contains much gold, silver, and rare gems. There is the Yeguangbi [the jewel that shines at night]; the mingyuezhu [the moon-shine pearl]; the xiejixi (the chicken frightening rhinoceros]; large conches; the che-ch’ü [mother-of pearl?]; cornelian stones; the k’ung-ts’ui; corals; amber; and all the valuable curiosities of the West are exported from this country.

The emperor Yangdi of the Sui dynasty [A.D. 605-617] always wished to open intercourse with Fulin, but did not succeed.

In the 17th year of the period Zhengguan [A.D. 643], the king of Fulin Po-to-li sent an embassy offering red glass, lu-chin-ching [green gold gem, gold dust or lapislazuli) , and other articles. Taizong [the then ruling emperor] favoured them with a message under his imperial seal and graciously granted presents of silk.

Since the Dashi [Arabs] had conquered these countries they sent their commander-in-chief, Moyi, to besiege their capital city; by means of an agreement they obtained friendly relations, and asked to be allowed to pay every year tribute of gold and silk; in the sequel they became subject to Dashi [Arabia].

In the 2nd year of the period Qianfeng [A.D. 667] they sent an embassy offering Ti-yehka.

In the first year of the period Dazu (A.D. 701) they again sent an embassy to our court.

In the first month of the 7th year of the period Kaiyuan [A.D. 719] their lord sent the ta-shou-ling [an officer of high rank] of T’u-huo-lo (Tokharestan) to offer lions and ling-yang [antelopes], two of each. A few months after, he further sent ta-te-seng (priests of great virtue=Nestorian priests] to our court with tribute.